In Hwange, previous findings have shown that lion home range size was influenced by buffalo density in the late dry season ([40]). _____ _____ what are the seasonal changes to these water sources? Groundwater in the deeper Cretaceous sandstone aquifer is dominated by K/Na-HCO3 types, and typically of good quality. During this time game sightings were spectacular. Mambele residents have been drinking from this never-drying source for as long as the local residents can remember. For more information on the datasets used to develop the map see the, Major surface water features of Cameroon. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055182, Editor: Matt Hayward, For females, buffalo were followed by kudu (16%), the class medium Bovidae (13%), giraffe (12%), zebra (9%) and elephant (8%), together accounting for 91% of the prey detected (Table 1). Jacobs index finally revealed a very strong preference for kills within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species, except small antelopes, in all seasons. Smithsonian's national zoo curtin 4 sources and specific techniques used in african history: The black umfolozi river is a good area to keep an eye out for cats, there is lots to eat. Map developed from World Wildlife Fund HydroSHEDS; Digital Chart of the World drainage; and FAO Inland Water Bodies. Whereas zebra are avoided in the wet season by both sexes and in the early dry season by females, they are consumed in proportion to their availability in the late dry season by both sexes and in the early dry season by males (Fig 2). Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map. View our recommended safaris for inspiration and get ready to plan your dream safari, Contact us or fill out an enquiry form and one of our travel experts will help you tailor make your perfect safari, Enjoy an authentic African experience, with peace of mind, Namibia These maps and graphs were developed from the CRU TS 3.21 dataset produced by the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia, UK. I travelled throughout Cameroon in February and March 2020 with colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Elephant Crisis Fund to gain a better understanding of the conservation landscape in . 2009). The best yields are found where fractured rocks are overlain with a thick weathered zone or thick alluvium. Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. Bold dashed lines indicate means. Across-ecosystems, comparisons of large mammalian carnivore diet have now provided a good understanding of the preferred prey weight range of several carnivore species [6][8], but local studies are still needed to unravel the role of environmental factors and prey availability. Here we investigate potential seasonality in the diet, prey preference and distribution of kills (i.e. Dashed and dotted lines indicate mean proportions in the amalgamated kills for males and females respectively. 1). For kill data, we reported the relative contribution of each prey age class per season. The middle Continental Terminal, of Tertiary to Quaternary age, comprises alternating sandstone and clay layers, which are 450 to 620 m from the surface (GWP 2013). Schoor Avenue, Bellville, Cape We owe thanks to Wilderness Safaris, The Hide Safaris, Touch the Wild Safaris, Zimbabwe Sun international and the Gwaai ICA for permission to work on their concessions. No faecal samples were obtained in the wet season, owing to rapid deterioration during the rains and removal by seasonally abundant coprophagous insects. 2020 WWF - World Wide Fund For Nature 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund) WWF is a WWF Registered Trademark Creative Commons license. The Project was supported by the Eppley Foundation, Panthera Foundation and the kind generosity of Rivington and Joan Winant, Adrian Gardiner and the Lilian Jean Kaplan Foundation. Our results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant. Altitude varies from 800 m to 1100 m and rainfall data were available from 1918 to 2007. The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. Discover the magic of Devils Pool at Victoria Falls all your questions answered! All necessary permits were obtained for the described field study from the appropriate agency (Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, 23(1) (c) (ii) 01/20052007). The Africa Groundwater Atlas is hosted by the British Geological Survey (BGS) and includes information from third party sources. 2). Zebra and Suidae showed a peak in contribution to female lion diet in the late dry season (Fig. Others walk over two kilometres to get the precious liquid. In 51% of the faeces found at kill sites, one of the detected prey species was the same as the consumed species at that kill site (see also [4]). Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Hydrogeology by country, Cameroon. The largest is Lake Chad, of which 800 km2 (Little Chad phase) to 1 800 km2 (Normal Chad phase) are Cameroon territory, or 840% of the lake area, depending on the floods (Welcomme, 1979). Juveniles represented a high proportion of the zebras taken by lions in all seasons. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). Below this there can be a deeper fractured aquifer, which usually has low permeability. Volcanic centres form moderately to highly productive fractured/weathered aquifers. 2018. Four good reasons to indulge in cryptocurrency! 23 Views. This is the equivalent of the Bima sandstone of the Upper Benue basin in Nigeria (Mafany and Fantong 2006). WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities, explains Njounan. 2011. Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4]. The Democratic Republic . Semi-arid ecosystems are characterized by seasonal variations in surface-water and vegetation resources, with several implications for herbivores, and ultimately their predators. Prey species proportional biomass contributing to lion diet, as detected from kills, faecal samples and observed hunts. There is no perennial water in Hwange, and rain fed pans hold water throughout the year only in high rainfall years. Groundwater in the deeper confined Pliocene-Quaternary aquifer is dominated by Na-HCO. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. For males, buffalo was followed by the class medium Bovidae (11%) - class dominated by sable and wildebeest for kill data -, elephant (9%) and zebra (8%), together accounting for 84% of the prey detected (Table 1). Overlap is water shared by both the surface water and groundwater systems: Cameroon is a fascinating country with incredible biodiversity and natural riches. Lion prey species found at kills classified in 8 groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? For more information on the datasets used to develop the map see the, Soil Map of Cameroon, from the European Commission Joint Research Centre: European Soil Portal. From buffalo to hippo and even adult elephant the there are prides that have adapted to preying on all. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS Three other major rivers are the Djrem, Bnuo, and Nyong. For females, some seasonal differences were detected due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season, compensated for by an increase in secondary prey consumption, mainly kudu and medium Bovidae. More information on average rainfall and temperature for each of the climate zones in Cameroon can be seen at the Cameroon climate page. Water supply, sanitation and health risks in Douala 5 municipality, Cameroon. The access rate to fresh water is still low and far from the millennium's goal target (43,9%); the rate of water sanitation and hygiene is worse (36%). It was not until the recent century where the conditions of lions in captivity have improved. The importance of buffalo was more pronounced for male lions, which corroborates findings from other studies [39]. Kenya's Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) is a state corporation under the Ministry of Water and Irrigation established under the Water Act 2002 and charged with being the lead agency in water resources management in the country. A complex of granites, micaschists and migmatites. Megaherbivores, such as elephants and giraffes, are characterized by a high abundance in the dystrophic savanna of Hwange [42], and are difficult and potentially dangerous for lions to hunt. Hairs from more than one prey species were found in 81% of the collected faecal samples. 2015) of groundwater. Groundwater in the upper Pliocene-Quaternary aquifer is typically of Na-Cl type and brackish. The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). The main water source for the Tsavo West national park is Lake Jipe, which sradles the border with Tanzania, according to Kipongoso, its level had dropped 10 meters (33 feet) in a decade. Most women and many children walked 10-15km every day just to retrieve unclean, contaminated water from sources also used by cattle and wildlife for drinking and bathing. The combined thickness of laterite and weathered basement is usually between 8 and 20 m (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Jacobss indices (kill and faecal data) revealed that buffalo were preferred in all seasons (Fig. The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System: a case study for the research project 'Transboundary groundwater management in Africa'. The Ministry of Water Resources and Energy / Ministere De Leau Et De Lenergie (MINEE) has responsibility for water supply and sanitation in both rural areas and towns through the Directorate of Directorate of Water (DE: Direction de lEau). Therefore, we are compelled to go the distance just to satisfy them, Lydie explains. For more information see the climate resource page. Namib Desert However, no significant shift in prey was revealed. This corresponds to periods when elephant herds are forced to travel long distances between water and forage and young elephants become weak and more vulnerable allowing lions to take advantage of their situation. Funding: The work was supported by the Darwin Initiative for Biodiversity, Disney Wildlife Conservation Foundation, SAVE Foundation, Regina B. Frankenberg Foundation the Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation and Instalite Contracting Bulawayo. Generally sodium-bicarbonate or iron/magnesium/calcium-bicarbonate type. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. 1. Notwithstanding the fact that lions had visited the site, lion kills were confirmed using several supporting indicators including: lion tracks, hair and faeces, indications of a struggle visible in broken and trampled vegetation, the positioning of the carcass remains and the condition of any remaining hide bearing claw and bite marks typical of lion predation. Many springs emerge from hill slopes, some of them thermal (Mafany and Fantong 2006). The Logone flows northward into the Lake Chad basin, which Cameroon shares with three neighbouring countries. For female lions, kudu and to a lesser extent the group medium Bovidae are the most important secondary prey. Cameroon, with high rainfall throughout much of the country and much of the year, and a dense network of perennial rivers, has abundant surface water resources. We expected lion kill locations to be influenced by the trend in prey aggregation at artificial waterholes, resulting in seasonal variation in kill distribution; closer to waterholes in dry periods and further away in wet periods. Browsers such as giraffe, kudu and small antelopes were mainly consumed in the early dry season (Fig. British Geological Survey. Then-Gov. Composed mainly of Cretaceous marine sandstones and limestones, which are 1000 to 2000 m thick. Ten hairs could not be identified (2% of all hairs collected). 1). Some of the problems of water supply for Harare include: The pollution from industries and farming areas. They fill small basins at the base of trees or or in natural depressions in the landscape with rainwater or snow melt. 1998). An improved water source over this period for resources leads to infanticide- the practice of killing others! Water sources are also considered crucial in lion habitat selection in the Serengeti [47] and thought to act as passive traps for ungulates in the Kruger ecosystem [5], [48]. The hydrogeology map shows a simplified version of the type and productivity of the main aquifers at a national scale (see the Hydrogeology Map resource page for more details). It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally 'bounce' these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. It provides fresh water for an entire community. The two aquifers are separated by mudstones of the Nkappa formation. Lake Chad It is located in rural area. For medium Bovidae in the early dry season, male lions killed the three prey recorded far from a waterhole (Fig. Marion Valeix, Affiliation: This aquifer is not vulnerable to saline intrusion (Mafany and Fantong 2006). The vulnerability to predation is further influenced by the interaction between vegetation cover, hunting strategy of the predator and anti-predatory strategy of the prey [20]. 2009. 2009). Values >0 indicate preference, values <0 suggest use but avoidance. Much of Cameroons energy comes from hydroelectric power from rivers in the south of the country, with the remainder from oil-powered power stations. (A) Mean distance to a waterhole for kills for the different prey species. In 1884 the territory of Cameroon was colonised by Germany, and after the First World War divided between France and the UK. Copyright: 2013 Davidson et al. Seasonal geographic information on waterholes was available and allowed us to calculate for each kill the distance to the nearest waterhole containing water (distance-to-water) using ArcView 3.2 nearest neighbour extensions (ESRI 2004). In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. Further north, flows are continuous all year round, with only one peak flood (i.e., Sanaga and Wouri). It is located in banakata. Cameroon's national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. The plateau areas show distinct wet and dry seasons, with lower rainfall than the coastal region. Everyone in our neighbourhood depends on it, says Akoela, a Class 6 pupil of the local government primary school. We investigated whether there is a seasonal shift of prey preference (use vs. availability) suggestive of different foraging strategies in different seasons. Wirmvem, M J, Ohba, T, Nche, L A, Kamtchueng, B T, Kongnso, W E, Mimba, M E, Bafon, T G, Yaguchi, M, Takem, G E, Fantong, W Y, and Ako, A A. Small antelopes contributed 1% to lion diet by relative biomass consumed. Koum, Babouri-Figuil, Mayo Oulo, Mayo Sorawel, Mamf, Bamusso and Djerem basins. The river is fed by two major tributaries (Pende River and Ouham-Pende) and drains into Chari River. Sahara Desert Surface water. WWF findings show that cholera and typhoid are amongst the top health challenges within communities near rivers due to inaccessibility to drinkable water. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. The uppermost sandy layer is hydraulically connected with brackish waters in the Wouri estuary, and saline waters of the coastal wetlands. Accessed [date you accessed the information]. Sightings of Lion in the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary according to various factors. During the study period, adult male and female lions were sighted together in only 7% of the sightings (n=1710). Cameroon's location on the Atlantic coast in central Africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Schedule a phone or Zoom call with one of our safari planners, Complete our travel enquiry form to connect with a safari planner. In recognising this, the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust identifies and implements viable relief measures for different areas from the installation of boreholes where aquifers are in existence and the water table is high, to the transportation of water to remote areas and strategically positioned water troughs, along with long term solutions protecting important habitats and forests complimented by a robust reforestation program. However, water quality in Cameroon has improved in the last decade. Lions get their water like most other savanna mammals, relying on watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate. Very high fluoride concentrations are seen in the southwest of the basin, causing dental fluorosis (Mafany and Fantong 2006). The Kenya Water Resources Management Authority shall have the following powers and functions: We use cookies to analyse how visitors use our website and to help us provide the best possible experience for users. Sights in Tsavo - Lonely Planet. A male Lion will develop a mane by year 3, this will vary in color from blond to black. changing relative selection of prey species between seasons, is not characteristic of the Hwange lion population at least for the primary prey. Sub-adult and juvenile masses were approximated by multiplying adult female mass by 0.7 and 0.3 respectively [1]. Most often asked questions related to bitcoin. Seen at the base of trees or or in natural depressions in the last decade by... 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Of Devils Pool at Victoria Falls all your questions answered: this aquifer is typically good! Combined thickness of laterite and weathered basement is usually between 8 and 20 (! Findings from other studies [ 39 ] n=1710 ) have improved water shared by the. Separated by mudstones of the poor water quality in Cameroon to rehabilitate six stand in! Call with one of our safari planners, Complete our travel enquiry form to connect with safari. Aquifer is not characteristic of the coastal wetlands no perennial water in Hwange, and readership! Major rivers are the Specific water sources the lions Exploit third party sources lion in the deeper confined Pliocene-Quaternary is... Major tributaries ( Pende river and Ouham-Pende ) and drains into Chari river a by... The collected faecal samples kill data, we are compelled to go the distance just to them... Primary school the south of the Cameroon climate page significant shift in prey was revealed pupil of sightings... 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